BIOETHICS

OBJECTIVES:

To discuss fundamental aspects of the ethical behavior of physicians with their colleagues, paramedical professionals, laboratory research animals, their own families, and, above all, with patients. Topics such as ethical behavior toward laboratory animals, organ transplantation, ethical aspects of infertility treatment, social media, and medical consultations and visits via the internet will be addressed.

 

JUSTIFICATION:

The postgraduate course aims to train medical educators and researchers. In this context, discussing medical ethics and bioethics with those interested in teaching and research is of fundamental importance, as the postgraduate student will, in the future, be a leader and multiplier of knowledge and opinion. A researcher and teacher with a solid understanding of ethics and bioethics, as well as the social and humanitarian role of medicine, is essential in the urology postgraduate course.

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CONTENT (SYLLABUS):

1. Importance of ethical behavior in the practice of medicine.

2. Ethical and legal importance of medical records and documentation.

3. Informed and enlightened consent and its implications in research involving human beings, organ transplantation, and infertility treatment, among others.

4. Analysis and discussion of situations arising from technological advances that challenge moral values, and their consequences for the continuity and improvement of life.

 

FUNDRAISING FOR RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN HEALTH

Period: 09/11/2022 to 24/11/2022  

OBJECTIVES:

This course has a program directed at postgraduate students seeking knowledge about the importance and means of obtaining funding for the development of research and innovation projects.

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JUSTIFICATION:

Fundraising for the financing of research projects is a fundamental aspect for any researcher. Additionally, it is important for postgraduate students to learn how to make cost estimates for research and manage the available funds appropriately. Thus, we developed a course designed to provide students with knowledge about alternatives for fundraising for research and other related aspects, such as innovation in health.

 

CONTENT:

• Principles for Research Funding Requests

  • Cost estimation

  • Viability of the research project

  • Important aspects for successful funding requests

  • Legal and financial implications

  • Quality of industry-funded research

  • Project evaluators: selection criteria

• Particularities of Research Funding Agencies

  • FAPESP

  • CAPES

  • CNPq

  • International agencies

• Fundraising from Private Companies

  • Rights and responsibilities of the researcher — ethical aspects

• Importance of Research Networks

  • Fundraising for innovation projects

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MEDICAL COMMUNICATION

OBJECTIVES: 

To understand the concept of patient-centered medical communication.
To develop skills for effective and ethical interaction with Health Institutions, other medical professionals, and patients, using current communication tools appropriate for each type of interaction.

 

JUSTIFICATION: 

Medical practice, in its broader dimension, involves effective and ethical interaction between the physician and Health Institutions, other health professionals, and the patient, with the final objective being the patient's well-being. Familiarity with recent communication tools is an essential skill for postgraduate students to enable the development of medical research, publication, and promotion of advances in science. Communication tools between Health Institutions and healthcare professionals have been developed using assistance protocols periodically audited by external agents, ensuring safety and quality in health care and medical research. Communication between healthcare professionals has evolved from experience-based opinions to a contextualized analysis of scientific evidence. This communication, which was previously done in person or through often outdated written media, has now been enhanced by electronic media with instant communication of relevant scientific facts. Similarly, communication between healthcare professionals and patients is also being transformed with the introduction of electronic media into the routine of this relationship. Therefore, it is no longer enough to publish scientific research. It is necessary to publicize it so that the advancement of science is perceived by the patient.

 

CONTENT (SYLLABUS):

1. Patient-centered medical communication: the relationship of the healthcare professional with the Institution, other professionals, and patients.

2. Legal aspects of medical communication: ethics and advertising.

3. Impact of social media.

4. Publication and promotion of scientific articles.

5. Medical presentations: audience, presentation, and didactics.

6. Leadership.

 

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CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES

OBJECTIVES:

1. To understand the fundamental principles of designs used in epidemiological studies.

2. To identify advantages and limitations of each type of design.

3. To evaluate the validity of epidemiological studies.

 

JUSTIFICATION:

In medical research, relevant knowledge of epidemiological methods is essential to develop appropriate research projects that validate the obtained results and conclusions.

 

CONTENT:

• Validity in epidemiological studies: selection bias, classification bias, and confounding variables.

• Causality in Epidemiology.

• Prospective and retrospective cohort studies.

• Case-control studies.

• Evaluation of exposure in epidemiological studies.

• Cross-sectional studies.

• Ecological studies.

• Interventional studies.

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COMPUTING AND INDEXERS IN RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES:

To enable students to access and utilize information sources and various modern automated bibliographic research resources relevant to academic activities, with a special focus on urology. Additionally, to provide practical application for the preparation of scientific papers​

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JUSTIFICATION:

To provide students with the tools for critical analysis and effective utilization of automated bibliographic research resources for formulating research projects and composing scientific papers for postgraduate programs and continuing education in general. To this end, practical topics will be covered regarding the scope, access, and proper use of databases in the medical field, particularly informational resources in infectious diseases, along with knowledge of the standards used in academic papers and publications, as well as critical analysis of scientific production disseminated by these databases and tools for evaluating the relevance and pertinence of information.

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CONTENT (SYLLABUS): 

The importance of research and the evolution of knowledge. The Library and Documentation Division of FMUSP – Dimensioning the Central Library, Collections, Offered Services, DEDALUS – Bibliographic Database, Integrated Search, Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations USP, Online Theses, Locating and obtaining materials not available in the Library. Bibliographic Research – methods of bibliographic research. Terminology, keywords, and health descriptors. Descriptors in Health Sciences - DECS Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information – BIREME/PAHO/WHO. Vocabulary used in indexing in LILACS and MEDLINE databases. Medical Subject Headings (MESH) – U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). Vocabulary used in indexing in the PUBMED/Medline database for research and retrieval of topics in the scientific literature. Databases: PUBMED, EMBASE, Web of Science, Derwent Innovations Index (patents), SCOPUS, Virtual Health Library (BVS), LILACS, ERIC, F1000 Prime, Evidence-Based Health Databases. Critical analysis of scientific production and bibliometric indicators. Impact factor of journals: InCites - Journal Citation Reports – Thomson Reuters. SCImago/SJR Journal & Country Rank – Elsevier. Qualis Journals – CAPES Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel. Electronic journals: SIBiNet, SIBi Journal Portal, CAPES Portal, SciELO, open-access journal websites. Books – with full text Access Medicine, OVID, E-Books SiBiNet, Bookshelf NCBI. Free Books for Doctors, open-access websites for electronic books. Author identifiers: ResearchID, ORCID, and ResearchGate.
Reference Management Tools: EndNote Basic and Mendeley.

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Academic Work – Presentation and structure. References: definition; essential elements; standardization in degree papers according to current norms; guidance on how to submit originals to biomedical journals. Academic ethics. Plagiarism. The importance of student intellectual production in postgraduate studies.

 

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EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE

OBJECTIVES:

To provide tools and concepts for the evaluation of levels of evidence and recommendations based on scientific works. Presentation of meta-analysis techniques.

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JUSTIFICATION:

Evidence-based medicine constitutes an important scientific information tool, based on well-defined criteria and evaluation standards. This knowledge should currently be part of the training of every medical educator and researcher.

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CONTENT:

Theoretical Classes:

1. Oxford Criteria for evaluating levels of evidence;

2. History and description of the Cochrane Foundation;

3. Recommendation grades based on levels of evidence; Meta-analysis.
   Practical: Exercises and personal training programs sent via email to students and evaluated periodically. Studies: Recommended literature to be read by students throughout the course.

 

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SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY AND WRITING OF SCIENTIFIC WORK IN MEDICINE

OBJECTIVES:

To empower postgraduate students to understand concepts associated with the methodology of a scientific paper and to write and publish articles.

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JUSTIFICATION:

The discovery of new knowledge is accomplished through basic and clinical research. The results must be scientifically correct based on samples, methods, and statistics. On the other hand, to ensure everyone has access to and can apply the generated knowledge, it must be published in indexed medical journals. To be accepted, scientific papers must be written clearly and consistently, following standards that have only been mastered by experienced educators. This course aims to train postgraduate students to successfully publish their research.

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CONTENT (SYLLABUS):

Class content: Classification of the methodology of medical research; Types of studies in the medical field: Observational versus experimental; Types of scientific works: original article, literature review (narrative and systematic), case description; How to write a scientific paper for publication in an indexed journal: title, abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, conclusions, references; How to write a thesis. Differences between an original article and a thesis.

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Seminars:

1. Presentation and critical evaluation of a case-control study;

2. Presentation and critical evaluation of a cohort study;

3. Presentation and critical evaluation of a clinical trial;

4. Presentation and critical evaluation of a cross-sectional study;

 

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PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF CLINICAL RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES:

To provide postgraduate students with technical and scientific elements within the legal framework for the planning, execution, and dissemination of clinical research.

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JUSTIFICATION:

Conducting clinical research requires planning, including budgeting, precise delineation of objectives, literature review, evaluation of ethical aspects and risks, and finally, the correct drafting of the research. These aspects are not taught (or are taught superficially) during undergraduate or medical residency programs and are fundamentally important for a researcher or higher education educator.

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CONTENT (SYLLABUS):

Theoretical Classes:

1. Critical analysis of the literature. Types of existing studies. Levels of evidence.

2. Planning: obtaining funding, budgeting, and scheduling.

3. Primary and secondary objectives. Justification of the work.

4. Statistical analysis: calculating sample size and applying various statistical tests; use of statistical software.

5. Main types of clinical research: clinical trials, cohort studies, systematic reviews.

6. Ethical aspects. Informed consent. Risk-benefit analysis.

7. Bibliographic references; use of software.

8. Writing the paper. Technical aspects.
   Practical: Exercises and personal training programs sent via email to students and evaluated periodically.
   Studies: Recommended literature for students throughout the course.

 

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PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL GENETICS RELATED TO PREDISPOSITION, DEVELOPMENT, PROGRESSION, AND TREATMENT OF NEOPLASMS – FROM BENCH TO BEDSIDE

OBJECTIVES:

To present the principles of genetics and molecular biology and the mechanisms of gene damage involved in the pathogenesis and progression of tumors. To discuss new molecular techniques and applications in this area of knowledge for cancer diagnosis and treatment, including biomarkers and targeted therapies.

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JUSTIFICATION:

Understanding the molecular mechanisms related to the development and progression of tumors has revolutionized pathology and oncology. Mastery of new technologies applied to the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of neoplasms is of fundamental importance for their routine application. New biomarkers have played an increasingly significant role in the early diagnosis of cancer, determining prognosis, and, most importantly, defining treatment. Targeted drugs have been developed based on the molecular alterations discovered in cancer studies and are routinely used in cancer treatment, alongside immune checkpoint inhibitors. Additionally, identifying patients with germline mutations that predispose them to cancer development has implications for screening, timely and specific treatment, and counseling for affected families. Oncogenetics is increasingly incorporated into clinical practice, and understanding hereditary tumor syndromes must be considered basic knowledge. This course aims to teach the molecular foundations that have enabled all this development. In recent years, demand for this knowledge has increased significantly as postgraduate students recognize the need for this learning. The invited lecturers are experts and opinion leaders in their fields and possess excellent teaching skills.

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CONTENT (SYLLABUS):

1. Bases of molecular biology and mechanisms of gene damage related to cancer - The basic principles of molecular biology will be presented, discussing the main alterations involved in the development of neoplasms.

2. Molecular mechanisms of prostate, bladder, and kidney neoplasms, identification methods, and practical applications – The genetic alterations found in the development and progression of prostate, bladder, and kidney carcinomas will be discussed, along with commercially available techniques for identifying such alterations that are useful for the diagnosis, monitoring, and prognosis of these tumors.

3. Genetic characteristics of familial tumors that have helped characterize the molecular lesions involved in cancer development. An example is familial renal cell carcinomas – The current classification of renal carcinomas is based on macroscopic, microscopic, and molecular characteristics, with the latter being peculiar and unique to each type of neoplasm. For instance, it is known that the Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) gene is an inhibitor of HIF1 (Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1). Clear cell renal carcinomas typically lose function of this gene, releasing HIF1, a potent promoter of angiogenesis. Based on these principles, targeted drugs, including tyrosine kinase inhibitors, have been routinely used in oncology. These drugs act specifically on clear cell carcinomas whose carcinogenesis pathway is based on VHL loss of function. Other types of tumors should also be characterized from a molecular perspective, as they may not benefit from this specific therapy, which is costly and not without side effects, and instead from other therapies already in practice, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors.

 

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USE OF QUALITY OF LIFE DATA IN MEDICAL RESEARCH: APPLICATION OF VALIDATED QUESTIONNAIRES FOR THE PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

OBJECTIVES:

1. To understand the concept of quality of life in health and its measurement instruments.

2. To include the concept of quality of life in medical practice as a health indicator in care protocols and research.

3. To become familiar with and verify the applicability of the instruments for measuring quality of life in medical research.

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JUSTIFICATION:

Concern for patients' quality of life has increasingly become a focus in medical practice. With technological advancements, patients acquire greater knowledge about their clinical conditions and the implications of the treatments they will undergo, significantly impacting their quality of life. The application of questionnaires on quality of life in medical research provides relevant data for both the treatment and assistance of patients.

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CONTENT (SYLLABUS):

1. Quality of life questionnaires: generic and specific.

2. Measurement items of the domain scales: physical, social, and emotional limitations.

3. Importance of applying quality of life instruments in medical research.